ClimateViewer and MyReadingMapped™ Credits
Created: July 13, 2014
Last Updated: November 21, 2018
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This map by George Stiller and Jim Lee is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Based on a work at climateviewer.org. Permissions beyond the scope of this license may be available at climateviewer.com/terms.

Other Interactive Maps of History
Try one of the manyother Interactive Maps of Explorers and Historic Events at MyReadingMapped. http://climateviewer.org/myreadingmapped/

Read Darwin's "The Origin of Species" online at Wikisource.
While the page references in this map use a printed copy of the book, you can read the book online on Wikisource.

How the locations in this map were determined.
The locations in this map were determined by the following:
- Darwin specifically mentioned the location in his book "Origin of Species."
- Darwin mentioned a condition in his book without a location that I then researched to determine a location that fit the condition. For example, when Darwin discusses the struggle to survive the climate on snow-capped summits, I selected Mt. McKinley in the Denali National Park because it is easily found and fits the condition Darwin described.
- Darwin mentioned a species or variation in his book without a specific location that I then researched to determine its location. For example, the lemur, which which resides in Malaysia and the Philippines.
- Other locations were determine because either a geo-tagged Panoramio photo or a Google satellite image of some herd of animals is located at that location.

This map relates to the Google Map of Darwin's 2nd Voyage of the Beagle
This map relates to the Google Map of Darwin's 2nd Voyage of the Beagle during which Darwin made his observations. Google / MyReadingMapped

#1 - Variation Under Domestication: Selective breeding of dogs
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter I
"At the present time, eminent breeders try by methodical selection, with a distinct object in view, to make a new strain or sub-breed, superior to anything of the kind in the country. But, for our purpose, a form of selection, which may be called unconscious, and which results from every one trying to possess and breed from the best individual animals, is more important. Thus, a man who intends keeping pointers naturally tries to get as good dogs as he can, and afterwards breeds from his own best dogs, but he has no wish or expectation of permanently altering the breed. Nevertheless we may infer that this process, continued during centuries, would improve and modify any breed, in the same way as Bakewell, Collins, &c., by this very same process, only carried on more methodically, did greatly modify, even during their lifetimes, the forms and qualities of their cattle. "

#1A - Bassett Hound Breeding Farm
(Zoom in close to see a dog breeding farm)

#2 - Variation Under Domestication: Selective beeding of sheep
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter I
"Youatt gives an excellent illustration of the effects of a course of selection which may be considered as unconscious, in so far that the breeders could never have expected, or even wished, to produce the result which ensued — namely, the production of the distinct strains. The two flocks of Leicester sheep kept by Mr. Buckley and Mr. Burgess, as Mr. Youatt remarks, "have been purely bred from the original stock of Mr. Bakewell for upwards of fifty years. There is not a suspicion existing in the mind of any one at all acquainted with the subject that the owner of either of them has deviated in any one instance from the pure blood of Mr. Bakewell's flock, and yet the difference between the sheep possessed by these two gentlemen is so great that they have the appearance of being quite different varieties."

#3 - Variation Under Domestication: Selective survival within Tierra del Feugo
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter I
"If there exist savages so barbarous as never to think of the inherited character of the offspring of their domestic animals, yet any one animal particularly useful to them, for any special purpose, would be carefully preserved during famines and other accidents, to which savages are so liable, and such choice animals would thus generally leave more offspring than the inferior ones; so that in this case there would be a kind of unconscious selection going on. We see the value set on animals even by the barbarians of Tierra del Fuego, by their killing and devouring their old women, in times of dearth, as of less value than their dogs."

#3A - Ushuaia, Chile: what was a struggle for survival became a flourishing community
Wikipedia: (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ushuaia)
The Selk’nam Indians, also called the Ona, first arrived in Tierra del Fuego about 10,000 years ago. The southern group of the Selk’nam, the Yaghan (also known as Yámana), occupied what is now Ushuaia, living in continual conflict with the northern inhabitants of the island.[4]
For much of the latter half of the 19th century, the eastern portion of Tierra del Fuego was populated by a substantial majority of nationals who were not Argentine citizens, including a number of British subjects. Ushuaia was founded, informally, by British missionaries, following previous British surveys, long before Argentine nationals or government representatives arrived there on a permanent basis. The British ship HMS Beagle, under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy, first reached the channel on January 29, 1833, during its maiden voyage surveying Tierra del Fuego.[5]

#4 - Variation Under Domestication: Lack of Conscious Selection in cultivation in Australia
"If it has taken centuries or thousands of years to improve or modify most of our plants up to their present standard of usefulness to man, we can understand how it is that neither Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, nor any other region inhabited by quite uncivilised man, has afforded us a single plant worth culture. It is not that these countries, so rich in species, do not by a strange chance possess the aboriginal stocks of any useful plants, but that the native plants have not been improved by continued selection up to a standard of perfection comparable with that acquired by the plants in countries anciently civilised."

#5 - Struggle for Existence: Dependence.
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter III
'A plant which annually produces a thousand seeds, of which only one of an average comes to maturity, may be more truly said to struggle with the plants of the same and other kinds which already clothe the ground. The mistletoe is dependent on the apple and a few other trees, but can only in a far-fetched sense be said to struggle with these trees, for, if too many of these parasites grow on the same tree, it languishes and dies. But several seedling mistletoes, growing close together on the same branch, may more truly be said to struggle with each other. As the mistletoe is disseminated by birds, its existence depends on them; and it may metaphorically be said to struggle with other fruit-bearing plants, in tempting the birds to devour and thus disseminate its seeds. In these several senses, which pass into each other, I use for convenience sake the general term of Struggle for Existence."

#6 - Struggle for Existence: Natural population control.
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin,
Chapter III
"Although some species may be now increasing, more or less rapidly, in numbers, all cannot do so, for the world would not hold them."
----
"In a state of nature almost every full-grown plant annually produces seed, and among animals there are very few which do not annually pair. Hence we may confidently assert that all plants and animals are tending to increase at a geometrical ratio,— that all would rapidly stock every station in which they could any how exist,— and that this geometrical tendency to increase must be checked by destruction at some period of life. Our familiarity with the larger domestic animals tends, I think, to mislead us; we see no great destruction falling on them, and we do not keep in mind that thousands are annually slaughtered for food, and that in a state of nature an equal number would have somehow to be disposed of."
(Zoom in close to see great numbers of hippos in the the Ikuu River, Tanzania)

#7 - Struggle for Existence: Extinction
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter III
"If an animal can in any way protect its own eggs or young, a small number may be produced, and yet the average stock be fully kept up; but if many eggs or young are destroyed, many must be produced or the species will become extinct."
(Zoom in close to see a herd of seals)

#8 - Struggle for Existence: Impact of Food Supply in Chad
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter III
"The action of climate seems at first sight to be quite independent of the struggle for existence; but in so far as climate chiefly acts in reducing food, it brings on the most severe struggle between the individuals, whether of the same or of distinct species, which subsist on the same kind of food. "

#9 - Struggle for Existence: Competition & Climate
"When we reach the Arctic regions, or snow-capped summits, or absolute deserts, the struggle for life is almost exclusively with the elements."
That climate acts in main part indirectly by favouring other species we clearly see in the prodigious number of plants which in our gardens can perfectly well endure our climate, but which never become naturalised, for they cannot compete with our native plants nor resist destruction by our native animals."

#10 - Struggle for Existence: Insect impact on Paraguay Cattle ranches.
"Here we see that cattle absolutely determine the existence of the Scotch fir; but in several parts of the world insects determine the existence of cattle. Perhaps Paraguay offers the most curious instance of this; for here neither cattle nor horses nor dogs have ever run wild, though they swarm southward and northward in a feral state; and Azara and Rengger have shown that this is caused by the greater number in Paraguay of a certain fly, which lays its eggs in the navels of these animals when first born. The increase of these flies, numerous as they are, must be habitually checked by some means, probably by other parasitic insects. Hence, if certain insectivorous birds were to decrease in Paraguay, the parasitic insects would probably increase; and this would lessen the number of the navel-frequenting flies — then cattle and horses would become feral, and this would certainly greatly alter (as indeed I have observed in parts of South America) the vegetation: this again would largely affect the insects; and this, as we have just seen in Staffordshire, the insectivorous birds, and so onwards in ever-increasing circles of complexity."

#11 - Struggle for Existence: Cattle impact on native vegetation in Straffordshire and its impact on other creatures.
"In Staffordshire, on the estate of a relation, where I had ample means of investigation, there was a large and extremely barren heath, which had never been touched by the hand of man; but several hundred acres of exactly the same nature had been enclosed twenty-five years previously and planted with Scotch fir. The change in the native vegetation of the planted part of the heath was most remarkable, more than is generally seen in passing from one quite different soil to another: not only the proportional numbers of the heath-plants were wholly changed, but twelve species of plants (not counting grasses and carices) flourished in the plantations, which could not be found on the heath. The effect on the insects must have been still greater, for six insectivorous birds were very common in the plantations, which were not to be seen on the heath; and the heath was frequented by two or three distinct insectivorous birds. Here we see how potent has been the effect of the introduction of a single tree, nothing whatever else having been done, with the exception of the land having been enclosed, so that cattle could not enter. But how important an element enclosure is, I plainly saw near Farnham, in Surrey. Here there are extensive heaths, with a few clumps of old Scotch firs on the distant hill-tops: within the last ten years large spaces have been enclosed, and self-sown firs are now springing up in multitudes, so close together that all cannot live. When I ascertained that these young trees had not been sown or planted I was so much surprised at their numbers that I went to several points of view, whence I could examine hundreds of acres of the unenclosed heath, and literally I could not see a single Scotch fir, except the old planted clumps. "

#12 - Natural Selection: Sexuality Selection
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter IV
"As yet I have not found a single terrestrial animal which can fertilise itself. This remarkable fact, which offers so strong a contrast with terrestrial plants, is intelligible on the view of an occasional cross being indispensable; for owing to the nature of the fertilising element there are no means, analogous to the action of insects and of the wind with plants, by which an occasional cross could be effected with terrestrial animals without the concurrence of two individuals. Of aquatic animals, there are many self-fertilising hermaphrodites; but here the currents of water offer an obvious means for an occasional cross. As in the case of flowers, I have as yet failed, after consultation with one of the highest authorities, namely, Professor Huxley, to discover a single hermaphrodite animal with the organs of reproduction so perfectly enclosed that access from without, and the occasional influence of a distinct individual, can be shown to be physically impossible. Cirripedes long appeared to me to present, under this point of view, a case of great difficulty; but I have been enabled, by a fortunate chance, to prove that two individuals, though both are self-fertilising hermaphrodites, do sometimes cross."

#13 - Natural Selection: Isolation
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter IV
"Isolation, also, is an important element in the modification of species through natural selection. In a confined or isolated area, if not very large, the organic and inorganic conditions of life will generally be almost uniform; so that natural selection will tend to modify all the varying individuals of the same species in the same manner. Intercrossing with the inhabitants of the surrounding districts, will also be thus prevented. Moritz Wagner has lately published an interesting essay on this subject, and has shown that the service rendered by isolation in preventing crosses between newly-formed varieties is probably greater even than I supposed. But from reasons already assigned I can by no means agree with this naturalist, that migration and isolation are necessary elements for the formation of new species. The importance of isolation is likewise great in preventing, after any physical change in the conditions, such as of climate, elevation of the land, &c., the immigration of better adapted organisms; and thus new places in the natural economy of the district will be left open to be filled up by the modification of the old inhabitants. Lastly, isolation will give time for a new variety to be improved at a slow rate; and this may sometimes be of much importance. If, however, an isolated area be very small, either from being surrounded by barriers, or from having very peculiar physical conditions, the total number of the inhabitants will be small; and this will retard the production of new species through natural selection, by decreasing the chances of favourable variations arising."

#14 - Laws of Variation: Natural selection via use and disuse
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter V
From the facts alluded to in the first chapter, I think there can be no doubt that use in our domestic animals has strengthened and enlarged certain parts, and disuse diminished them; and that such modifications are inherited. Under free nature we have no standard of comparison by which to judge of the effects of long-continued use or disuse, for we know not the parent-forms; but many animals possess structures which can be best explained by the effects of disuse. As Professor Owen has remarked, there is no greater anomaly in nature than a bird that cannot fly; yet there are several in this state. The logger-headed duck of South America can only flap along the surface of the water, and has its wings in nearly the same condition as the domestic Aylesbury duck: it is a remarkable fact that the young birds, according to Mr. Cunningham, can fly, while the adults have lost this power. As the larger ground-feeding birds seldom take flight except to escape danger, it is probable that the nearly wingless condition of several birds, now inhabiting or which lately inhabited several oceanic islands, tenanted by no beasts of prey, has been caused by disuse. The ostrich indeed inhabits continents, and is exposed to danger from which it cannot escape by flight, but it can defend itself, by kicking its enemies, as efficiently as many quadrupeds. We may believe that the progenitor of the ostrich genus had habits like those of the bustard, and that, as the size and weight of its body were increased during successive generations, its legs were used more and its wings less, until they became incapable of flight.

#15 - Difficulties in Theory: Organic beings of peculiar habits and structure
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter VII
"Seeing that a few members of such water-breathing classes as the Crustacea and Mollusca are adapted to live on the land; and seeing that we have flying birds and mammals, flying insects of the most diversified types, and formerly had flying reptiles, it is conceivable that flying-fish, which now glide far through the air, slightly rising and turning by the aid of their fluttering fins, might have been modified into perfectly winged animals. If this had been effected, who would have ever imagined that in an early transitional state they had been inhabitants of the open ocean, and had used their incipient organs of flight exclusively, so far as we know, to escape being devoured by other fish?"

#16 - Difficulties in Theory: Organs of extreme Perfection and Complication
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter VII
"It is scarcely possible to avoid comparing the eye with a telescope. We know that this instrument has been perfected by the long-continued efforts of the highest human intellects; and we naturally infer that the eye has been formed by a somewhat analogous process. But may not this inference be presumptuous? Have we any right to assume that the Creator works by intellectual powers like those of man? If we must compare the eye to an optical instrument, we ought in imagination to take a thick layer of transparent tissue, with spaces filled with fluid, and with a nerve sensitive to light beneath, and then suppose every part of this layer to be continually changing slowly in density, so as to separate into layers of different densities and thicknesses, placed at different distances from each other, and with the surfaces of each layer slowly changing in form. Further we must suppose that there is a power, represented by natural selection or the survival of the fittest, always intently watching each slight alteration in the transparent layers; and carefully preserving each which, under varied circumstances, in any way or degree, tends to produce a distincter image. We must suppose each new state of the instrument to be multiplied by the million; each to be preserved until a better is produced, and then the old ones to be all destroyed. In living bodies, variation will cause the slight alteration, generation will multiply them almost infinitely, and natural selection will pick out with unerring skill each improvement. Let this process go on for millions of years; and during each year on millions of individuals of many kinds; and may we not believe that a living optical instrument might thus be formed as superior to one of glass, as the works of the Creator are to those of man?"

#17 - Difficulties in Theory: More on Organs of extreme Perfection and Complication
Book: The Origins of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter VII
"Now look at the Galeopithecus or so-called flying lemur, which was formerly ranked among bats, but is now believed to belong to the Insectivora. An extremely wide flank-membrane stretches from the corners of the jaw to the tail, and includes the limbs with the elongated fingers. This flank- membrane is furnished with an extensor muscle. Although no graduated links of structure, fitted for gliding through the air, now connect the Galeopithecus with the other Insectivora, yet there is no difficulty in supposing that such links formerly existed, and that each was developed in the same manner as with the less perfectly gliding squirrels; each grade of structure having been useful to its possessor. Nor can I see any insuperable difficulty in further believing it possible that the membrane-connected fingers and fore-arm of the Galeopithecus might have been greatly lengthened by natural selection; and this, as far as the organs of flight are concerned, would have converted the animal into a bat. In certain bats in which the wing-membrane extends from the top of the shoulder to the tail and includes the hind-legs, we perhaps see traces of an apparatus originally fitted for gliding through the air rather than for flight."

#18 - Hybridism: Examples of Hybridism
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter IX
"The practical experiments of horticulturists, though not made with scientific precision, deserve some notice. It is notorious in how complicated a manner the species of Pelargonium, Fuchsia, Calceolaria, Petunia, Rhododendron, &c., have been crossed, yet many of these hybrids seed freely. For instance, Herbert asserts that a hybrid from Calceolaria integrifolia and plantaginea, species most widely dissimilar in general habit, "reproduces itself as perfectly as if it had been a natural species from the mountains of Chile." I have taken some pains to ascertain the degree of fertility of some of the complex crosses of Rhododendrons, and I am assured that many of them are perfectly fertile. Mr. C. Noble, for instance, informs me that he raises stocks for grafting from a hybrid between Rhod. ponticum and catawbiense, and that this hybrid "seeds as freely as it is possible to imagine." Had hybrids, when fairly treated, always gone on decreasing in fertility in each successive generation, as Gärtner believed to be the case, the fact would have been notorious to nurserymen. Horticulturists raise large beds of the same hybrid, and such alone are fairly treated, for by insect agency the several individuals are allowed to cross freely with each other, and the injurious influence of close interbreeding is thus prevented. Any one may readily convince himself of the efficiency of insect agency by examining the flowers of the more sterile kinds of hybrid Rhododendrons, which produce no pollen, for he will find on their stigmas plenty of pollen brought from other flowers."

#19 - Hybridism: Hybrids and Mongrels compared, independently of their fertility.
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter IX
"These several remarks are apparently applicable to animals; but the subject is here much complicated, partly owing to the existence of secondary sexual characters; but more especially owing to prepotency in transmitting likeness running more strongly in one sex than in the other, both when one species is crossed with another and when one variety is crossed with another variety. For instance, I think those authors are right who maintain that the ass has a prepotent power over the horse, so that both the mule and the hinny resemble more closely the ass than the horse; but that the prepotency runs more strongly in the male than in the female ass, so that the mule, which is an offspring of the male ass and mare, is more like an ass than is the hinny, which is the offspring of the female-ass and stallion."
---
According to the American Mule Museum (http://mulemuseum.org/History_of_the_Mule.html), "The inhabitants of Paphlagonia and Nicaea (the northern and northwestern parts of modern day Turkey) are said to have been the first to breed mules.

#20 - On the Imperfection of the Geological Record: On the Poorness of our Palæontological Collections.
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter X
"With respect to the terrestrial productions which lived during the Secondary and Palæozoic periods, it is superfluous to state that our evidence is fragmentary in an extreme degree. For instance, until recently not a land-shell was known belonging to either of these vast periods, with the exception of one species discovered by Sir C. Lyell and Dr. Dawson in the carboniferous strata of North America; but now land-shells have been found in the lias. In regard to mammiferous remains, a glance at the historical table published in Lyell's Manual, will bring home the truth, how accidental and rare is their preservation, far better than pages of detail. Nor is their rarity surprising, when we remember how large a proportion of the bones of tertiary mammals have been discovered either in caves or in lacustrine deposits; and that not a cave or true lacustrine bed is known belonging to the age of our secondary or palæozoic formations."

#21 - On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings: Extinction.
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter XI
'The extinction of species has been involved in the most gratuitous mystery. Some authors have even supposed that, as the individual has a definite length of life, so have species a definite duration. No one can have marvelled more than I have done at the extinction of species. When I found in La Plata the tooth of a horse embedded with the remains of Mastodon, Megatherium, Toxodon and other extinct monsters, which all co-existed with still living shells at a very late geological period, I was filled with astonishment; for, seeing that the horse, since its introduction by the Spaniards into South America, has run wild over the whole country and has increased in numbers at an unparalleled rate, I asked myself what could so recently have exterminated the former horse under conditions of life apparently so favourable. But my astonishment was groundless. Professor Owen soon perceived that the tooth, though so like that of the existing horse, belonged to an extinct species. Had this horse been still living, but in some degree rare, no naturalist would have felt the least surprise at its rarity; for rarity is the attribute of a vast number of species of all classes, in all countries. If we ask ourselves why this or that species is rare, we answer that something is unfavourable in its conditions of life; but what that something is, we can hardly ever tell. On the supposition of the fossil horse still existing as a rare species, we might have felt certain, from the analogy of all other mammals, even of the slow-breeding elephant, and from the history of the naturalisation of the domestic horse in South America, that under more favourable conditions it would in a very few years have stocked the whole continent. But we could not have told what the unfavourable conditions were which checked its increase, whether some one or several contingencies, and at what period of the horse's life, and in what degree they severally acted. If the conditions had gone on, however slowly, becoming less and less favourable, we assuredly should not have perceived the fact, yet the fossil horse would certainly have become rarer and rarer, and finally extinct;— its place being seized on by some more successful competitor."

#22 - On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings: Extinction.
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter XI
With respect to the apparently sudden extermination of whole families or orders, as of Trilobites at the close of the palæozoic period, and of Ammonites at the close of the secondary period, we must remember what has been already said on the probable wide intervals of time between our consecutive formations; and in these intervals there may have been much slow extermination. Moreover, when, by sudden immigration or by unusually rapid development, many species of a new group have taken possession of an area, many of the older species will have been exterminated in a correspondingly rapid manner; and the forms which thus yield their places will commonly be allied, for they will partake of the same inferiority in common.

#23 - Geographical Distribution: Dispersal during the Glacial Period.
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter XII
The identity of many plants and animals, on mountain-summits, separated from each other by hundreds of miles of lowlands, where Alpine species could not possibly exist, is one of the most striking cases known of the same species living at distant points, without the apparent possibility of their having migrated from one point to the other. It is indeed a remarkable fact to see so many plants of the same species living on the snowy regions of the Alps or Pyrenees, and in the extreme northern parts of Europe; but it is far more remarkable, that the plants on the White Mountains, in the United States of America, are all the same with those of Labrador, and nearly all the same, as we hear from Asa Gray, with those on the loftiest mountains of Europe. Even as long ago as 1747, such facts led Gmelin to conclude that the same species must have been independently created at many distinct points; and we might have remained in this same belief, had not Agassiz and others called vivid attention to the Glacial period, which, as we shall immediately see, affords a simple explanation of these facts. We have evidence of almost every conceivable kind, organic and inorganic, that, within a very recent geological period, central Europe and North America suffered under an Arctic climate. The ruins of a house burnt by fire do not tell their tale more plainly than do the mountains of Scotland and Wales, with their scored flanks, polished surfaces, and perched boulders, of the icy streams with which their valleys were lately filled. So greatly has the climate of Europe changed, that in Northern Italy, gigantic moraines, left by old glaciers, are now clothed by the vine and maize. Throughout a large part of the United States, erratic boulders and scored rocks plainly reveal a former cold period.

#24 - Geographical Distribution of the Galapagos Archipelago
Book: The Origin of Species, by Charles Darwin, Chapter XIII
"The really surprising fact in this case of the Galapagos Archipelago, and in a lesser degree in some analogous cases, is that each new species after being formed in any one island, did not spread quickly to the other islands. But the islands, though in sight of each other, are separated by deep arms of the sea, in most cases wider than the British Channel, and there is no reason to suppose that they have at any former period been continuously united. The currents of the sea are rapid and deep between the islands, and gales of wind are extraordinarily rare; so that the islands are far more effectually separated from each other than they appear on a map. Nevertheless, some of the species, both of those found in other parts of the world and of those confined to the archipelago, are common to the several islands; and we may infer from the present manner of distribution that they have spread from one island to the others. But we often take, I think, an erroneous view of the probability of closely allied species invading each other's territory, when put into free intercommunication. Undoubtedly, if one species has any advantage over another, it will in a very brief time wholly or in part supplant it; but if both are equally well fitted for their own places, both will probably hold their separate places for almost any length of time. Being familiar with the fact that many species, naturalised through man's agency, have spread with astonishing rapidity over wide areas, we are apt to infer that most species would thus spread; but we should remember that the species which become naturalised in new countries are not generally closely allied to the aboriginal inhabitants, but are very distinct forms, belonging in a large proportion of cases, as shown by Alph. de Candolle, to distinct genera. In the Galapagos Archipelago, many even of the birds, though so well adapted for flying from island to island, differ on the different islands; thus there are three closely allied species of mocking-thrush, each confined to its own island. Now let us suppose the mocking-thrush of Chatham Island to be blown to Charles Island, which has its own mocking-thrush; why should it succeed in establishing itself there? We may safely infer that Charles Island is well stocked with its own species, for annually more eggs are laid and young birds hatched than can possibly be reared; and we may infer that the mocking-thrush peculiar to Charles Island is at least as well fitted for its home as is the species peculiar to Chatham Island. Sir C. Lyell and Mr. Wollaston have communicated to me a remarkable fact bearing on this subject; namely, that Madeira and the adjoining islet of Porto Santo possess many distinct but representative species of land-shells, some of which live in crevices of stone; and although large quantities of stone are annually transported from Porto Santo to Madeira, yet this latter island has not become colonised by the Porto Santo species: nevertheless, both islands have been colonised by some European land-shells, which no doubt had some advantage over the indigenous species. From these considerations I think we need not greatly marvel at the endemic species which inhabit the several islands of the Galapagos Archipelago not having all spread from island to island. On the same continent, also, pre-occupation has probably played an important part in checking the commingling of the species which inhabit different districts with nearly the same physical conditions. Thus, the south-east and south-west corners of Australia have nearly the same physical conditions, and are united by continuous land, yet they are inhabited by a vast number of distinct mammals, birds, and plants; so it is, according to Mr. Bates, with the butterflies and other animals inhabiting the great, open, and continuous valley of the Amazons."

#1B - Photos: 2 variations of Basset Hound
A Basset Bleu de Gascogne
Wikipedia Commons / M.W. Reichert
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Basset Fauve de Bretagne
Wikipedia Commons / sannse (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Sannse)

#2A - Photo: 2 variations of Leicester sheep
Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leicester_sheep)
Google Map / Panoramio / Bobsky
Variation A - Close up of the above photo.
Variation B - A Leicester Longwool / Wikipedia Commons / Glenn Brunette (http://www.flickr.com/people/70989289@N00)

#2B - Photo: 3rd variation at a New Zealand sheep farm

#4A - Photo: Auburn Botanic Garden, Australia
Google Map / Panoramio / girolamo fedele

#6A - Herd of Hippos
(Zoom in close to see great numbers of hippos in the the Ikuu River, Tanzania)

#7A - Flamingos
(Zoom in close on a pack of Flamingos)

#8A - Herd of Elephants
(Zoom in close to see a herd of elephants)

#8B - Herd of Buffalos
(Zoom in close to see a herd of buffalos)

#8C - Herd of Camels
(Zoom in close to see a herd of camels)

#8D - Herd of Lechwe
Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lechwe)
The lechwe, or southern lechwe, (Kobus leche) is an antelope found in Botswana, Zambia, southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, northeastern Namibia, and eastern Angola, especially in the Okavango Delta, Kafue Flats and Bangweulu Swamps.
Lechwe stand 90 to 100 cm (35 to 39 in) at the shoulder and weigh from 70 to 120 kg (150 to 260 lb). They are golden brown with white bellies. Males are darker in colour, but general hue varies depending on subspecies. The long, spiral-structured horns are vaguely lyre-shaped, they are found only in males. The hindlegs are somewhat longer in proportion than in other antelopes, to ease long-distance running in marshy soil.
Lechwe are found in marshy areas where they eat aquatic plants. They use the knee-deep water as protection from predators. Their legs are covered in a water-repellant substance which allows them to run quite fast in knee-deep water.

#8E - Herd of Oryx
(Zoom in close to see a herd of oryx)

#8F - Herd of Seals

#9A - Photo: Snow-capped Mt. McKinley

#10A - Photo: Paraguay cattle ranch.

#11A - Photo: Dunston Heath, Straffordshire

#11B - Photo: Farnham Heath, Surrey

#12A - Pair of mated Whales
(Zoom in close to see a pair of whales traveling together)

#13A - Photo: Kangaroo (endemic to Australia)
Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangaroo)
Google Map / Panoramio / ebi lutze

#13B - Photo: Emu (native to Australia)
Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emu)
Google Map / Panoramio / scienceUNSW

#13C - Photo: Shingleback (T. rugosa asper, the only subspecies native to eastern Australia)
Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shingleback_Skink)
Google Map / Panoramio /
Peter Ermel

#13D - Photo: Red-bellied black snake (native to eastern Australia.)
Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-belly_Black_Snake)
Google Map / Panoramio / miro59 (http://www.panoramio.com/user/659560?with_photo_id=3378320)

#14A - Photo: Flightless Falkland steamer duck
Wikipedia Commons / Pismire

#15A - Photo: Pink-wing Flying Fish
Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_fish)
Wikipedia Commons / Public Domain / NOAA

#16A - Photo: The visual acuity of a red-tailed hawk's compound eye
Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_eye#Visual_acuity)
Wikipedia Commons / Steve Jurvetson (http://www.flickr.com/people/jurvetson/)

#17A - Photo: Sunda flying lemur
Wikipedia Commons / Nina Holopainen

#18A - Herbert: XI - On Hybridization amongst Vegetables pt. 2
The journal of the horticultural society of London / page 86
"I formerly mentioned that the result from the impregnation of the shrubby Calceolaria integrifolia by Calceolaria plantaginea, which is quite as humble and herbaceous as a plantain, was remarkable, the whole produce having a similar aspect, that of a very dwarf plant, with long serrated leaves on very short stiff branches, the inflorescence being exactly intermediate between that of the two species. It appeared at first to be sterile, but last year I obtained a pod from it, and it has reproduced itself as perfectly as if it were a natural species from the mountains of Chili; set with the pollen of other hybrids it has produced handsome varieties perfectly herbaceous. The whole produce of the pod I have mentioned having been similar to the parent plant, and quite distinct in appearance from any other Calceolaria, there can be no doubt that, if they were planted in a wild spot, of which the soil, circumstances, and climate suited their growth and fructification, a new species, according to the terms and acceptation of botanists, would have been there established; and yet any person who cultivated Calceolaria integrifolia by impregnating it with C. plantaginea would obtain the like."

#18B - Photo: Two dissimilar parents variations involved in hybridism.
According to Professor Elizabeth Harris of the University of Central Florida's Biology department, "
subtle differences between 2 plant species can loom large in the
eyes of dedicated botanists."
Calceolaria integrifolia
Wikipedia Commons / BotBln (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:BotBln)
Calceolaria plantaginea
Modern Artwork (http://www.houzz.com/photos/modern/artwork) by Valley Center Furniture & Accessories BuilderDepot, Inc. (http://www.houzz.com/pro/builderdepot/builderdepot-inc)

#19A - Photo of a Mule in Tierra del Feugo
Wikipedia Commons / Public Domain / Dario u (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:User:Dario_u)

#20A - Photo: Amphibamidae
fossilworks.org
E. Daly. 1973. A Lower Permian vertebrate fauna from southern Oklahoma. Journal of Paleontology 47(3):562-589 [J. Alroy/J. Alroy]
Wikipedia Commons / Nobu Tamura

#20B - Images of Pulmoniferous gastropoda
Pupa (left), Zonites (right)
The student's Lyell: a manual of elementary geology by Sir Charles Lyell

#21A - Image of Mastodon
Wikipedia Commons / Public Domain / Charles R. Knight

#22A - Photo of Trilobite Rusophycus trace fossil
Rusophycus trace fossil from the Ordovician of southern Ohio.
Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trilobites)
Wikipedia Commons / Public Domain / Wilson44691 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Wilson44691)

#23A - Photo: Alp mountains

#23B - Photo: Mountains of Wales

#23C - Photo: White Mountains

#23D - Photo: Mountains in Labrador

#24A - Images of the four mocking-thrush discovered at the Galapagos Archipelago
Souce: Darwin's Second Voyage of the Beagle